‘Mater Card’ by American Policymakers Essay Example for Free

‘Mater Card’ by American Policymakers Essay To what extent was the atomic bomb used as a diplomatic ‘mater card’ by American policymakers at the end of the Second World War? In 1945, the unconditional surrender of German symbolized the victory of the war against Fascism in Europe. However, the situation in Far East was still extremely intention. In the 7th July of the same year, the leaders of American, Great Britain and Soviet Union - Truman, Churchill and Stalin held the third conference during the wartime in Potsdam. During the conference, the Potsdam Declaration was proposed in order to urge Japan to accept the requirement of unconditional surrender. Nevertheless, the leader of Japan ignored the declaration and refused to surrender. As a result, the America dropped two atomic bombs to Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 6th and 9th in August 1945. The explosion of these two atomic bombs has brought enormous calamity to Japan. The bomb killed 140,000 inhabitants out of the total of 350,000 in Hiroshima, as well as 70,000 out of 270,000 people in Nagasaki. These huge numbers of death have largely led to the serious concern in the Japan to consider the surrender. In the 10th august, the Japan hand in the document of surrender. After 5 days, in 15th, the American accept the unconditional surrender proposed by Japan. If we looking back to the decision of dropping the atomic bomb, it is certainly an effective way in which it will promote the surrender of Japan in earlier time. However, it is not the only purpose of dropping the atomic bomb, in fact, as the lot of diplomatists have indicated, it is also a diplomatic strategy in dealing with the relationship with the Soviet Union. By using the atomic bomb, American will deter the Soviet Union and ensure American stand in a superior stage in deciding the world pattern in post-war period. To large extent, the atomic bomb is a ‘master card’ to contain Soviet Union rather than a tool to end the Second World War. It was certain that the Americans were willing to end the war as soon as possible by using atomic bombs. Both of America and Japan had paid high expense in the Pacific battlefield. Undoubtedly, to end the war would save a vast number of lives. Herbert Feis supplied evidence that one of the cogent reasons to use the atomic bomb was for military force, to push the war to end as soon as possible. It was until 15th August 1945, several days after the atomic booming event taken place, the empire of Japan declared  surrender. It was clear that the atomic bomb made influence on Japan’s surrender progress. However, as a matter of fact, the military power of Japan was disintegrated rapidly in 1945, meanwhile, allied nations had kept applying pressure to Japan. The defeat of Japan was for certain even without the bomb threatening. Thus, in other words, to large extent, the atomic bomb was not an instrument to end the Second World War. As the war against Fascism close to end in Europe, the Allies had concentrated their forces on Japan. Especially, in December1941, the attack on Pearl Harbor had significant blow on American people. In the speech after the big event, President Roosevelt asserted that ‘I ask that the Congress declare that since the unprovoked and dastardly attack by Japan on Sunday, December 7, 1941, a state of war has existed between the United States and the Japanese empire.’ Along with American’s entering the war, the trajectory of Japan began to decline. In the Midway Battle in 1942, it had cost Japan heavily by losing a mass of air and navy power. In addition, since 1944, the American navy had tightened the stranglehold towards Japan’s ships. In the late summer of the same year, the fail of Marianas Islands, including Saipan had pushed Japan to a severer condition. For the Marianas had been an important district as a defending perimeter, Japan was under the risk of within the range of B-29 bombings. The situation was moved rapidly, thus, the defense perimeter was broken and American forces had destroyed the navy and air force. By 1945, Japan was not able to declare large scaled air and sea battles. George, the commander of the Air Forces stated that Japan could do nothing without the support of sea and air power. Indeed, with America’s enormous industrial capacity, Japan was no longer a menace to America. This was why Henry, who was commanding Army Air forces said that the position of Japan was hopeless before the bomb fell for they had lose their air control. However, the worse was that a naval blockade strangled the key approach for Japan to import oil and other raw material. Japan could hardly to produce war materials, even the food. Without these essential supplements, Japan was indeed collapsed. Truman had written in his diary that ‘I have to decide Japanese strategy, shall we invade Japan proper or shall we bomb and blockade.’ In the eyes of American, the Japanese had to be obedient to American’s order. On the other hand, the invasion of Soviet Union had make a  key influence on Japan’s capitulate. With the victory of Stalingrad, the attitude of Soviet Union began to transfer. Even in the Yalta conference, Stalin promised that Soviet Union would attack Japan after the defeat of German. Ignoring the neutrality pact, the Operation August Storm was launched in the summer of 1945. The Soviet Union started an attack on Japanese position in the area of Korea and Manchuria. During the two weeks’ wartime, Japan has lost 84,000 lives. The Soviet Union’s invasion made it hopeless for Japan to search help from Stalin to end the war peaceful. The Navy Chief Toyoda argued that, ‘I believe that the Russian participation in the war against Japan rather than the atom bombs did more to hasten the surrender.’ With the enormous of lose of military force; there was no ability for Japan to procrastinate surrender. In sum, the shortage of military force and the pressure from all the alliance nations made Japan a country around by various crises. Many experts are convinced that the bombs are almost unnecessary to end the war, for the surrender of Japan would be probably occur in any of events. In other words, the atomic bomb was not a conclusive factor to end the war. The atomic bomb, which was the most appalling weapon created in the 20 century, had played an important role for certain. Instead of ending the war, many experts had asserted that to large extent, the atomic bomb policy was used to contain the Soviet Union. As a matter of fact, American had paid most attention to concern Soviet Union as a factor in the early progress of the bomb. Some scholars had the argument that there was never any illusion but Russia was the enemy of American. The president Roosevelt had also share the similar argument that the development of atomic strategy was a part of general diplomacy, which link the wartime situation and postwar affairs. Roosevelt also agreed with Churchill the opinion of using atomic bomb as an approach to bargain with the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, the compromising policy of Roosevelt would not promote the atomic diplomacy insufficiently. In Einstein’s opinion, he argued that if President Roosevelt were still alive, he would forbid the act of atomic bombings.In the April of 1945, after the death of President Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman became a new American leader with swearing an oath. As a result of Roosevelt’s sudden death, Truman was relatively uninformed the policy towards the Soviet Union  and atomic bombs. Truman had stated that he would continue the foreign and domestic policy before, however, that he would be a president of his own belief. Without an integrated foreign policy, Truman was heavily influenced by the advisors. The lack of information about Soviet Union made the advisors easy to persuade Truman to adopt their suggestion of confronting the Soviet Union. It indicated the fundamental transition of diplomacy of America.In the other hand, after his rising to power, the Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson introduced that the existence of ‘ the most urgent matter’ the bomb. Thus, Truman was full of confidence to achieve the superpower of American with the monopoly of nuclear power. Under his influence, the diplomacy of American had become offensive. In Truman’s opinion, the Soviet Union’s communist was a factor to prevent American hegemony. To Truman, the initial notion on the new weapon was a tool of diplomatic confrontation with Russia.It was a trend to use the atomic bomb as an instrument to contain the Soviet Union. In July of 1945, the atomic bomb action was put forward to discussion of the role, which the nuclear weapon would play to contain the Soviet Union. For another aspect, it was a colossal threaten to America that the invention of the Soviet Union army into the Pacific battle field. The atomic bomb was use to end the war earlier in order to avoid Soviet’s entry into the war. In the spring of 1945, the Soviet Union had achieved the victory of the Berlin Battle. The Soviet Union had been a dominant status in the European territory. Stalin also had the careerism to gain and expand the territory in East Asia. To occupy Japan was a positive tactics for Soviet Union to sally the Asian continent.Stalin stated that Russia would share the actual occupation of Japan before the explosion of the bombs. The American government had a concession of Stalin’s willing for the reason of a requirement of assistance from Russia to defeat Japan at the beginning in the Yalta Conference. However, along with the success of the testing of atomic bombs, Japan’s defeat was for certain. America was no longer with the requirement of Russia’s assistance. Stalin still tried to participate the war with Japan and America. The American government was not satisfied with Stalin’s decision with the hope of keeping Soviet Union out of Asia. If Russia were in the war against Japan, Russia would occupy other areas in  East Asia near Japan. In another word, Manchuria, Mongolia, and also Korea would gradually under Russia’s control. Stimson had provide a view of ‘If the Russians seek joint occupation after a creditable participation in the conquest of Japan, I do not see how we could refuse them at least a token occupation’ It has proved that America was under the risk of Soviet Union’ s entry into the war. The President Truman wrote in his book ‘Years of Decisions’ that he would not to allow Russians played any role to control Japan. Consequently, the Americans had a strong will to end the war as soon as possible to avoid the Soviet Union’s invasion. Byrnes, assistant to Secretary of State, had showed the argument to support ending the war before Russian’s joining in an interview. He asserted that the President Truman had shared the same view with him that it was necessary to get Japan defeated before the Russians came in the war. Similarly, Albert Einstein announced that by any means, to push the war to end should precede the participation of the Soviet Union.These are the evidence of that American were willing to end the war and to stall the Soviet Union’s entry. On 16th July 1945, in New Mexico, the success of testing the atomic bomb’s explosion had supplied an excellent chance to end the war. The assistant to Secretary of State, Byrnes, had suggested the President Truman that the bomb could be used as a way to reduce Soviet Union’s influence in Asia by ending the war. The atomic bomb, contain tremendous power when it occurs the nuclear fission reactions. The Americans had ability to urge Japan to surrender as soon as possible by holding such a weapon with huge lethality. If Japan was defeat by Americans before the Soviet Union’s assistance, there was no excuse for Soviet Union to invade East Asia area. From this aspect, the atomic bomb was used for contain Soviet Union’s invasion by ending the Pacific war as soon as possible. In addition, the make use of Atomic bombs was the nuclear threaten to the Soviet Union. To some extent, the atomic bomb would likely to strength the American military force in order to against Soviet Union. After germen’s defeat in 8th may 1945,the entire European continent seemed to be ready up for grab. As a matter of fact, one of the most considerable affaire to the Allied nations was to modify the world pattern. However, the Soviet Union has made a dominant place in Europe with expending large amount of territory  in the European continent. The Soviet Union has become the largest army to prevent America to achieve its hegemony monopolized in the world. The success of testing atomic bomb in new Mexico had provide a ‘master card’ for America to against the soviet union for the American has grasped the unique technological weapon with large power. Nevertheless, the development of atomic bomb was continually a secret before it’s testing. In the Potsdam conference, the president Truman had once tried to reveal that the America had had the nuclear power. In addition, the National Security Advisor, James Byrnes suggest Truman that to make a display of atomic bomb to the Soviet Union might become a tool to menace the Soviet Union, as well as to put the American into a positive situation at the end of the second world war. Similarly the president Truman has argued that in his belief that the atomic bomb would make positive effect on the position to strive for more territory at the end of the war. From Byrnes and Truman’s argument, it had been proved that the existence of atomic bombs itself was a huge risk to Soviet Union. To make Soviet Union realize that American had controlled the key technology of nuclear power as well as it had been in use, it was necessary to implement the atomic bomb policy with the global attention. Indeed, the atomic bomb increased the American army’s confidence dramatically. On the other hand, to Soviet Union, Stalin would not to compete against America directly as a result of such a weapon with lethality. In other words, the atomic bomb had played an important role to contain the Soviet Union. To conclude, the atomic bomb was a diplomatic ‘master card’ of containing The Soviet Union’s action instead of ending the war. It was certain that the surrender of Japan occurred several days after the atomic bomb’s explosion. The atomic bomb had made contribution on ending the war to some extent. However, Japan’s defeat was destined if the American policy makers didn’t make any decision of atomic bomb. For one thing, Japan was failed in many battles with a high expense of navy and air force. Even worse, the American army had cut the approach for Japan to import oil and raw materials. For another thing, the Soviet Union’s invasion was also a factor to promote Japan’s surrender. That is to say Japan’s surrender would occur in any case, the war would certainly had been end without the bomb. Instead of ending the war, the atomic bomb exerted its effectiveness to contain the Soviet Union.  In 1945, the President Truman’s rise to power had laid a foundation of the offensive diplomatic policy. To avoid Soviet Union’s expansion of territory, the atomic diplomatic strategy was used for against Stalin’s action. For one thing, the atomic bomb was used to end the war as soon as possible in order to prevent Soviet Union’s entry into Pacific battlefield. For another thing, the atomic bomb itself was deterrence for Soviet Union as the Americans had grasped the nuclear technology. In sum, the atomic bomb meet the requirement of defeating Japan, nevertheless, to be more accurate, the atomic bomb was a key step to deter Soviet Union’s global monopoly. Reference list Alperovitz, G., 1995. The decision to use the atomic bomb. London: Frontana Press Bird, K., Lifschultz, L., 1998 Hiroshima’s shadow. Michigan: Pamphletee†s Press P. 37 Cooper, J. W., 2006. Truman’s motivations: using the bomb in the Second World War [pdf] Available at: http://www.johnwcooper.com [Accessed 24 November 2012] Dower, J. W., 1986. The war in western eyes, apes and others. In: War without mercy. New York: Pantheon Books Pp. 77-93 Frank, R. F., 1999 Downfall, the end of the imperial Japanese empire. United States of America: Penguin Books. Giovannitti, L.,Freed, F., 1965. The decision to drop the bomb. Great Britain: Methuen Co Ltd. Freeman, R., 2006. Was the atomic bombing of Japan necessary? [online] Available at: http://www.commondreams.org/views06/0806-25.htm [Accessed 23 November 2012] Hein, L., Selden, M., 1997 Living with the bomb, American and Japanese cultural conflicts in the nuclear age. New York: M.E. Sharpe Leffler, M. P.,Painter D. S., 1994 the atomic bomb and the origins of the cold war in: Painter the origins of the cold war: an international history New York: Rouledge P. 59. Malloy, S. L., 2008. Atomic tragedy, the decision to use the bomb against Japan. United States of America: Cornell Paperbacks Milson, W.D., 2011. The most controversial decision. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. P. 15. Preston, D., 2006 before the fall-out: from Marie Curie to Hiroshima: Corgi P. 493 Selden,M (1989), The atomic bomb voice from Hiroshima and Nagesaki. London: Kyoko, Mark Selden. P. 23. Smith, J. K., 2010 fire in the sky: the story of the atomic bomb: United States of America: Author house P. 17 Walker, J.S., 1996. The decision to use the bomb: a historiographical update. In: Hogan, M. J., 1996. Hiroshima, in history and memory. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge university press. Pp. 11- 37 [ 1 ]. L. Hein and M. Selden living with the bomb, American and Japanese cultural conflicts in the nuclear age. (Great Britain 1965) P. 4 [ 2 ]. J. S. Walker Hiroshima, in history and memory. (Cambridge 1996) P. 11 [ 3 ]. J. K. Smith Fire in the sky: the story of the atomic bomb (2010 United States of America) P. 17 [ 4 ]. M. Selden voices from Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1989 London) P. 23 [ 5 ]. R. Freeman was the atomic bombing of Japan necessary? [Online] Available at: http://www.commondreams.org/views06/0806-25.htm [Accessed 23 November 2012] [ 6 ]. R. F. Frank Downfall, the end of the imperial Japanese empire. (1999 United States of America) P. 132 [ 7 ]. J. W. Dower war without mercy. (1986 New York) P. 83. [ 8 ]. G. Alperovitz The decision to use the atomic bomb (1995 London) P. 647 [ 9 ]. G. Alperovitz The decision to use the atomic bomb (1995 London) P. 645 [ 10 ]. L. Giovannitti and F. Freed the decision to drop the bomb (1965 Great Britain) P. 236. [ 11 ]. J. W. Cooper Truma n’s motivations: using the bomb in the Second World War [pdf] Available at: [Accessed 24 November 2012] P. 6 [ 12 ]. G. Alperovitz The decision to use the atomic bomb (1995 London) P. 127 [ 13 ]. L. Giovannitti and F. Freed the decision to drop the bomb (1965 Great Britain) P. 125 [ 14 ]. M.P. Leffler and D. S. the atomic bomb and the origins of the cold war in: Painter the origins of the cold war: an international history (1994 New York) P. 59. [ 15 ]. S. L. Malloy Atomic tragedy, the decision to use the bomb against Japan. (2008 United States of America) P. 81-85 [ 16 ]. Miscamble.w.d. 2011. The most controversial decision, Truman, the atomic bombs, and the defeat of Japan. P. 15 [ 17 ]. K. Bird and L. Lifschultz Hiroshima’s shadow (1998 Michigan) P. 37 [ 18 ]. D. Preston before the fall-out: from Marie Curie to Hiroshima (2006) P. 493 [ 19 ]. G. Alperovitz The decision to use the atomic bomb (1995 London) P. 274 [ 20 ]. K. Bird and L. Lifschultz Hiroshima’s shadow (1998 Michigan) P. 17 [ 21 ]. G. Alperovitz The decision to use the atomic bomb (1995 London) P. 134

The impact of the Industrial Revolution

The impact of the Industrial Revolution This investigation examines the effects of the Industrial Revolution from years 1780 to 1840 on the laissez-faire attitude of the British government. This investigation focuses on how the Industrial Revolution benefited from the existence of the laissez-faire attitude in Great Britain during the late 18th century and then contributed to its demise by the mid-19th century. This investigation highlights why the hands-off approach and the lack of government involvement and oversight in economic development helped the explosive growth of industry. It only focuses on Great Britain, which is considered the Industrial Revolutions birthplace, not other European countries nor the United States. The researcher will use various printed texts and internet sources as evidence to address this investigation. In this investigation, two sources are evaluated. The Silent Revolution: The Industrial Revolution in England as a Source of Cultural Change written by John Walter Osborne and The First Industrial Revolution written by Phyllis M. Deane are two sources assessed with their origins, purposes, values, and limitations. B. Summary of Evidence From medieval times there had been strict regulation in Britain on wages, employment, training (apprenticeship), industrial location, prices, and commerce. By the mid-17th century, these regulations were difficult for the government to enforce due to new industries and expanded trade.  [1]  Therefore, the restrictions were ineffective and suspended. For more than a hundred years before the Industrial Revolution, the State was in retreat from the economic field.  [2]  There was the fact that a large number of restrictions on economic activity and on the free-flow of trade were reduced or removed.  [3]   Prior to the Industrial Revolution, governments were primarily structured to keep peace at home and to defend the country against foreign enemies. The function of government was administration, not legislation.  [4]  The central government administration in Britain was small compared to modern standards. As late as 1833 the Home Office employed only 30 persons and the Board and Trade, 20. So limited were its activities that the central government consisted mainly of customs officials and excise menà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ And nothing was as yet done on a national level concerning health, education, or poor relief.  [5]   Adam Smith, a Scottish economist in the mid-late 1700s, strongly opposed any government interference in business affairs. He and his followers heavily influenced the adaptation of laissez-faire government and used the doctrine of the invisible hand to justify free trade. Trade restrictions, minimum wage laws, and product regulation were all viewed as detrimental to a nations economic health.  [6]  The philosophy of laissez-faire, the view that the business of government was to leave things alone, and adopted whole-heartedly the view that the unrestricted operation of private enterprise was the most effective way of securing the maximum rate of economic growth.  [7]   The triumph of laissez-faire in the 19th century is the retreat from protectionism and the adoption of a free trade policy.  [8]  Due to limited government regulation and intervention, innovation was accelerated. In England, factory owners had access to the natural resources necessary for the mass production of goods and a willing workforce. Employers were able to offer low wages for long hours because of the sizable poor population.  [9]   In the 1830s and 1840s, and still more in the 1850s, the State was steadily taking responsibility for wider and wider control of private enterprise in the interest of society as a whole.  [10]  Even though the laissez-faire attitude of the British government which took hold in the mid-18th century spurred the growth of the industrial revolution, it was the revolution itself which brought the laissez-faire movement to an end. The industrial revolution changed every aspect of society in Britain. Migration from small rural villages to urban cities took place. Living conditions were poor for the working class and their newly concentrated population increased awareness of their struggles. Prior to this urbanization of the population, society was not focused on the health and welfare of the general population. Around this time, the appeal of ethics and moral philosophy began to take hold.  [11]  With this new focus, pressure was put on the government to address the issues of the po or. This caused the government to get involved and no longer allowed for a hands-off policy. The decline of laissez-faire attitudes, corruption in government, growth of political parties, public opinion, and increased efficiency of legislative activity were in varying degrees caused by industrialism. C. Evaluation of Sources The First Industrial Revolution written by Phyllis Deane published in 1980 provides useful insight for the historian into the role of the British government during the British Industrial Revolution. Phyllis Deane is a professor of economic history at the University of Cambridge and a fellow of Newnham College who references many other historians in her work. The sources purpose is to describe how the British government functioned throughout the Industrial Revolution and how it took on the philosophy of laissez-faire. This books values are that it allows for a thorough understanding of how the British government removed many restrictions on economic activity to go along with its laissez-faire attitude. It also references Adam Smith and the beginning of the laissez-faire ideology stating how the business of government is to leave things alone. However, a limitation to this source is that the authors references are limited to writings from the twentieth century and do not include works from the Industrial Revolution time period. The Silent Revolution: The Industrial Revolution in England as a Source of Cultural Change written by John Walter Osborne, published in 1970, is another beneficial source for the historian. John W. Osborne is a history professor at Rutgers University who specializes in modern Europe and nineteenth century Britain. This sources purpose is to depict changes in Britain from before and after the Industrial Revolution. It also parades how the laissez-faire philosophy took on by the government influenced this change. A value of this source is that it gives the perspective of a historian who contrasts Britain before and after the Industrial Revolution and provides specific details of what the British government believed at the time. A limitation to this source is that the author is interested in a broad range of social impacts and is not entirely focused on the impact that the Industrial Revolution had on government. D. Analysis Prior to Britains industrial revolution (1760 to 1830) government and society overall had very different characteristics. Britain had been a primarily agricultural economy with the textile industry being mainly small, independent businesses. With the Industrial Revolution, communities transitioned from rural to urban. There was great upheaval caused by this change. While the Industrial Revolution brought positive changes, the benefits were usually seen by the upper class who took advantage of the new means of industry. In contrast with the positive changes, many individuals found themselves disadvantaged by the loss of their livelihoods at their traditional crafts. The population growth, overcrowding, and squalid living circumstances in cities where the jobs could be found were only compounded by the lack of compassion for the lower class.  [12]   It is well documented that a laissez-faire attitude existed in the British government at the end of eighteenth century. With the explosive growth of industry, government oversight was not possible. The government did not have the resources to regulate private commerce. At this time, there was also resistance to government involvement since government involvement was perceived as a hindrance and would have impaired prosperous growth. The idea of government being responsible for the welfare of its citizens did not exist at that time and helping people living in poverty was not seen as responsibility of the government. The laissez-faire attitude promoted by leaders and economists, such as Adam Smith, kept government out of private industry during the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. Without government intervention, private corporations were able to set their own standards. The driving incentive for these industries was profit. Due to the absence of guidelines, working conditions were poor and minimum wages were usually nonexistent. The rapid changes occurring during the Industrial Revolution greatly influenced all aspects of British life including the view of the role of government. It brought about new concepts on how society should behave. It is due to these changing perceptions that by the 1820s parliament passed a large volume of economic and social legislation.  [13]  It is based on this evidence that the Industrial Revolution brought to an end the British governments laissez-faire attitude. Government began to intervene in the behavior of private enterprise at the local level in the urban areas where social problems were the most extreme. It was particularly true when government stepped in to address problems of sanitation and town improvement and was particularly necessary when regulating land lords and builders who did not have the interests of the overall community in mind.  [14]   In addition to government intervention due to health issues, the government was beginning to be pressured by the growing voice of the working class who were petitioning for safer and fairer working conditions. The growth of public opinion was brought about by technical improvements of the steam powered newspaper presses which increased circulation.  [15]  This raised the awareness of poor living conditions and unfair practices in the workplace. The sources utilized in this investigation were written by researchers who employed a wide variety of material when developing their publications. The materials ranged from earlier twentieth century analyses of the Industrial Revolution and back to writings from the time period of the Industrial Revolution. It is through their in-depth analysis and interpretation that the researcher can gain an understanding of the impact of the Industrial Revolution. E. Conclusion At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution a laissez-faire attitude existed. The changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution shifted the behavior of the British political system away from their hands-off philosophy. While the Industrial Revolution brought about great innovation, it made more acute the issues of poverty and poor working conditions. The Industrial Revolution influenced changes to the role of the government and was responsible for the social and economic legislation passed in the first half of the nineteenth century. Instead of allowing industry to run without oversight and pursue profit at the expense of society, regulations were enacted which resulted in improved living conditions for the working class. This change to government after Britains Industrial Revolution is the basis for modern-day government. F. List of Sources Adam Smiths Laissez-Faire Policies. The Victorian Web: An Overview. Accessed November 29, 2011. http://www.victorianweb.org/economics/laissez.html. Ashton, T. S. The Industrial Revolution, 1760-1830. London: Oxford University Press, 1948. British Industrial Revolution. Clemson University. Accessed November 29, 2011. http://www.clemson.edu/caah/history/FacultyPages/PamMack/lec122sts/hobsbawm2.html. Deane, Phyllis M. The Role of Government. In The First Industrial Revolution, 219-37. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Miller, James. The 1800s. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2001. Osborne, John W. The New Politics: The Growth of Legislation. In The Silent Revolution: the Industrial Revolution in England as a Source of Cultural Change, 85-105. Scribner, 1970. Word Count: 1945

The Romantic Era Of Opera Music Essay

The Romantic Era Of Opera Music Essay The Romantic Era was a period in music in which there was much change during the 1850s to the 1920s in the theory and compositional practice of music. The composers wrote their pieces with more artistic freedom, experimentation, and creativity than the artists of the classical era and this caused the melody to become the more dominant feature in the songs composed. Some popular composers that originated out of this era are: Robert Schumann, Franz Schubert, Frà ©dà ©ric Chopin, and Richard Wagner. For inspiration, many Romantic composers turned to visual arts, poetry, drama and literature, and to nature itself. These influences led composers to express emotion in their music. These changes in the sound of the music came in the form of the increased use of dissonance and the extended use of chromatics. Although Romantic era music contained classical era roots, the instruments used in the Romantic era were changing and brass and woodwind instruments were being improved in the quality of sound, as well as in how they were played. Some Romantic era composers used their compositions to express nationalism by the way of incorporating elements unique to their native cultures, such as folk songs, dances, and legendary histories. Mikhail Glinka is an example of a composer who wrote operas specifically on Russian subjects. Many great operas derived from the Romantic era including Gaetano Donizettis Lucia di Lammermoor, as well as Gioachino Rossinis The Barber of Seville. Opera was very dominant in Italy where the operas differed from the operas of the classical era because the form of the pieces were being changed by having the tenors given the heroic lead in operas and by giving the chorus a more important lead than before. Gioachino Rossini was the first composer to initiate an opera in the Romantic era, which started in the early 19th century. His first piece, La Cambiale di Matrimonio, included scenes where the characters expressed emotion through the lyrics of their songs. This was a comedic opera that was the first of its kind which was written in 1810. Many great composers followed Rossini including Vincenzo Bellini, Gaetano Donizetti, and Giuseppe Verdi. These composers continued to change the way operas were being written as well as preformed. These changes were evident in Verdis first success ful opera, Nabucco, which the general public found interesting because of its great choruses. Verdi also continued to express nationalism in his operas, Va, pensiero, which was interpreted as giving meaning to the struggle for Italian independence and Verdi was expressing his hope to unify Italy. By the end of the Romantic era, opera had become a combination of many art forms including the theatre, dance and orchestra oriented music. Although opera was predominant in Italy, many other European composers were contributing to the changes in the music of their generation, including German composer Richard Wagner. Richard Wagner was born on May 22, 1813 in Leipzig, Germany where he had a difficult childhood. Wagners father died of typhus six months after Richards birth which led his mother Johanna Rosine Wagner, to begin living with the actor and playwright Ludwig Geyer, who had been a friend of Richards father up until his death. Richards mother then proceeded to marry Ludwig Geyer and they moved the family to Dresden. It is here where Wagner started his musical learning. Richard first took interest in his step fathers love for the theatre and performance arts and he played an angel in a play at a local theatre. When he was seven, Wagner was enrolled at Pastor Wetzels school at Possendorf, near Dresden, where he received some piano instruction from his Latin teacher. A year later his stepfather died which led the ei ght year old Wagner to attend the Kreuz Grammar School in Dresden. Although Richard was largely a self taught musician he persuaded his family to allow him to take music lessons. From 1828-1831 Wagner completed his first lessons in composition with Christian Gottlieb Mà ¼ller and by the time he was fifteen he had already written his first play. Wagners focus on drama is one of the reasons his operas really shined as being different than operas of the classical era. He enrolled at the University of Leipzig in 1831 where Wagner further took composition lessons from Christian Theodor Weinlig who refused to let Richard pay for the lessons he was giving him. Weinlig was so impressed with Wagners talents that he arranged for one of Wagners piano works to be published. Wagner continued his studies in music and he completed his first opera when he was twenty years old called Die Feen. This opera would not be produced until half a century later when it was premiered in Munich shortly after his death in 1883. Around the time he wrote his first opera, Wagner married the actress Minna Planer, who he moved to Riga with where he became the music director of the local opera house. His relationship with his wife was a troubled one in that she left him once for another man, but came back to him before they moved to Paris due to fleeing from tremendous debt. In 1862 he returned to Germany, where he moved in with Ludwig II. After the success of his opera, Tristan und Isolde, he decided to do more traveling around Europe where he created such classics as Siegfried and Gà ¶tterdà ¤mmerung. Towards the end of his life Wagner decided to settle in Italy where wrote his final opera, Parsifal. Parsifal was first preformed at the Bayreuth festival which occurred at the opera house in which Wagner himself funded. After the second Bayreuth festival the Wagners decided to take a trip to Venice in the winter of 1883. It is here where Richard Wagner passed away due to a heart attack. In his long musical career Wagner created thirteen operas including the most notable Rienzi, Der fliegende Hollà ¤nde, Tristan und Isolde, and Der Ring des Nibelungen. It was clear that Wagner was changing the way operas were being preformed, and he continued to push the music further into the Romantic era by viewing operas as total art works.

The Establishment of the Electoral College Essay -- essays research pa

The Electoral College is the system established by the Founding Fathers to select the President of the United States. It is important that Americans have a fundamental knowledge of this system, and the obstacles overcame in its development. There were many obstacles faced by the Founding Fathers while constructing the government. America was comprised of 13 states that wanted to protect their individual rights and leery of a strong centralized government. The nation’s population lay across a vast area with limited communication capabilities. In addition, the Founders believed that a true gentleman should not campaign for office. â€Å"The office should seek the man, the man should not seek the office† was the saying. They challenged themselves with overcoming these and other obstacles in order to produce a system that would provide a stable and powerful executive branch of government.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Constitutional Congress set out to develop a way to select the president. One idea proposed was to have Congress elect the president. Some felt that this procedure would invite political bargaining and corruption. They felt the president might feel obligated to aid Congress in passing legislation by not vetoing. Others felt this system would upset the balance of power between the executive and legislative branches of government. In spite of its drawbacks, this system was brought to a vote on four separate occasions(Peirce 39). A second idea was to have the president elected by a direct vote system. Many people did not believe in this type of system, however three very prominent figures did: James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris, and James Madison(Peirce 41). They believed that the duty of the president was to protect the people from the legislature, and that the people should be allowed to their protector. However, most of the Founders believed that the average citi zen would not have enough knowledge of the candidates to make an educated choice. They believed that the people were generally misinformed and easily misled(Peirce 41). The direct vote system also favored the larger more populated states with little regard for the people of the smaller ones. This system was voted down twice, but aided in recognizing the drawbacks of the Congress electing the president(Peirce 41). A third idea was to have the state legislatures select the president. This idea w... ...tate is allowed to cast only one vote collectively. This applies to the election of vice president also. In addition, either the presidential or the vice presidential candidate voted for by the elector has to be from outside that elector’s own state.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Electoral College has been used as the system to select the President of the United States for over two hundred years. The system was devised by the Founding Fathers to ensure that the selected president would receive the support of all the states. The system helped to maintain a strong centralized government and union. The Electoral College has been used to maintain a fair presidential selection system with little room for corruption or favoritism. It has been a part of our system of checks and balances by maintaining a clearly defined separation of the legislative and executive branches. There have been some bumps along the way, however the Electoral College is still an essential part of our elections system. Works Cited Glennon, Michael J. When No Majority Rules. Washington: Congressional Quarterly Inc, 1992. Peirce, Neal R. The People’s President. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1968.

Utilization of 14c Phenylalanine Derived from Arylphorin or Free Amino

UTILIZATION OF {14C} PHENYLALANINE DERIVED FROM ARYLPHORIN OR FREE AMINO ACID IN MANDUCA SEXTA PHARATE ADULTS GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE PAPER How did someone figure out that carbon dioxide in the bloodstream is exchanged for oxygen in the lungs of mammals? And how do we know that hormones are produced by, for example, the pituitary gland and, moreover, that these hormones signal the body to grow. These and many other questions have been answered by means of the scientific method. Scientists form hypotheses, experiment, collect data, and draw conclusions from this data that is then applied to answering questions about that certain topic. Some research seems to be obselete and/or practically useless, only to come into the picture years or decades later and shift the field of science. Although at times it is difficult to say what the repercussions of a particular study will be, it is not uncommon for that very study to play a key role in a major scientific breakthrough later. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that although a particular study may not seem to be important at the time, later it could be the most signifi cant study in the field. This study performed by Min Wu and Dr. Marc E. Tischler, at first glance may appear to have a narrow focus, but upon furthur consideration, one realizes that its findings have applications to any number of related topics. In this experiment, Wu and Tischler tracked what paths a specific protein, arylophorin, and followed its production and distribution throughout the body of Manduca sexta pharate adults. Their first goal was to determine the most efficient method for producing radioactively labeled arylophorin, called 14C-Arylphorin. Their second goal, and purpose of the experime... ...test) difficulty of the experiment--finding the right conditions from which the highest (or most acceptable) specific activity could be achieved. After much experimentation it was determined that incubating one-half fat body in 1 ml of medium (0.15 mM of labeled phenylalanine and amino acids at 25% normal level in Grace's medium) for 15-24 hours, chasing labeled phenylalanine after one hour with unlabeled phenylalanine, yielded most desirable results. Temperature was shown to have little or no affect on the results, so room temperature was used in further experimentation and final implementation in achieving high specific activity (more convenient). REFERENCES Tischler, Marc E., Wu, Min. (1995) Utilization of 14C Phenylalanine Derived From Arylphorin or Free Amino Acid in Manduca sexta Pharate Adults. Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology pgs.258-272.

Charlotte’s Web Paper Essay

Charlotte’s Web is a magnificent children novel written by an American author E.B.White about a friendship between a spider and a pig. This story then became very famous and won several awards so it is decided that to produce a film based on the Charlotte’s Web story. Although the film and the book had a similar story line, it still got some minor differences among them that may change the excitement of the story. First of all, the differences among the book and the film is that in the book, a girl called Fern, who saved a runty pig named Wilbur from her father who was trying to use an axe to kill him, got to school and thought of him all day long. However, in the film, Fern brought Wilbur to school and got in trouble by Wilbur knocking off her table which was causing a chaos. This made it more exciting rather than just sitting down and thinking of Wilbur. Moreover, in the film, there are two crows wanting to eat Templeton, an uncooperative rat. Whereas the book did not have two crows c hasing Templeton. The chase was very funy. This made the film more interesting and more hilarious and would made the audience like this movie more. Furthermore, in the book, the horse is not mentioned to be afraid of Charlotte. Yet in the film, the horse was really scared of Charlotte. Whenever he saw Charlotte, he ran around in circles crazily, faint, cry, or even panic. This will make the audience clearly remember this character or even make some children laugh. Last but not least, in the book, there is no smoke house in Zuckerman’s barn. On the other hand, in the film, there is a smoke house and Wilbur is very scared of it because it will turn him into smoke bacon and ham. This would grab the audiences’ attention. Therefore, from all the differences listed above, It is obiously that the film is better than the book because it is more attracting.

Guided Imagery Child Play Therapy

DEFINITION Guided imagery therapy is a cognitive-behavioral technique in which a child is guided in imagining a relaxing scene or series of experiences. RATIONALE Guided Imagery is similar to hypnosis and various relaxation strategies. Guided Imagery lies somewhere in the middle of a continuum consisting of standard relaxation techniques on one end of the spectrum and hypnosis on the other. As used by the author, guided imagery involves the child engaged in some sort of focused relaxation exercise followed by the use of visual imagery for the purpose of either direct or indirect problem-solving with the child.Guided Imagery brings two primary benefits to the play-therapy process. First, it can be used to help children gain a sense of mastery over both their bodies and their feelings, and secondarily, it can be used to augment generalization of other gains made in the play therapy by allowing children to use their imaginations to create hypothetical life situations in the play room so as to practice their newly acquired skills with the support of the therapist. Guided Imagery is thus really an elaborate form of role playing.While conventional role playing can be very effective, it is the use of Guided Imagery to augment mastery that is the focus of this discussion. DESCRIPTION Guided Imagery can be introduced at any point in the play therapy process. The child must be able to follow simple sequential directions and must be willing to relax in session. The ultimate goal is to provide the child with an increased sense of mastery, but the initial process requires that the child relinquish some control to the therapist, as the therapist will need to teach the child the techniques.There are a number of ways the therapist may introduce the process to the child — younger children often respond to the idea of taking an imaginary trip, while older children often like the idea of personal mastery, including the concept of self-hypnosis. However Guided Imagery is in troduced, the therapist begins by teaching the child a basic relaxation strategy. If the child is willing, it is useful to have him or her lie down or sit in a recliner for the early training; alternatively, sitting in a beanbag chair works well.Progressive deep muscle relaxation is probably the most effective way of preparing the child for guided imagery. Is this approach to relaxation the child is asked to focus on one muscle group at a time while working to achieve maximum relaxation of that area of the body. Groups of muscles are added in sequence with the goal of achieving total body relaxation. Younger children may have difficulty with progressive deep muscle relaxation because it is such a passive process. For them a sequence of contract-relax instructions that take them through all of the major muscle groups is usually more effective.For example the child might be told to curl his toes then relax them, push his knees together then relax, tighten his stomach muscles and relax , and so on. Each muscle group is contracted and relaxed several times in a slow sequential progression. While deep relaxation facilitates the guided imagery process it is not necessary; simply getting the child to focus and follow directions is sufficient. Note that the child should be encouraged to achieve relaxation with his/her eyes open. This will make easier for the child to access the effects of the imagery later, in situations where full relaxation is not possible.Once even minimal relaxation has been achieved, Guided Imagery can be introduced. The imagery used needs to be tailored to the child’s needs, experiences, and developmental levels. This is best illustrated through a case example. Imagery techniques have been combined with a wide range of behavioral and cognitive procedures and treatment methods of some psychotherapeutic approaches, including behavior modification, cognitive processing therapy, rational emotive therapy, multimodal therapy, and hypnotherapy.Co mbinations of treatment methods among these approaches lead to the following general uses of imagery: ? antifuture shock imagery (preparing for a feared future event) ? positive imagery (using pleasant scenes for relaxation training) ? aversive imagery (using an unpleasant image to help eliminate or reduce undesirable behavior) ? associated imagery (using imagery to track unpleasant feelings) ? coping imagery (using images to rehearse to reach a behavioral goal or manage a situation ? step-up† technique (exaggerating a feared situation and using imagery to cope with it) An assessment of the child and their problems is an essential part of treatment, both at the beginning of therapy and throughout the entire process. This is to ensure that the therapist has sufficient understanding of the child's situation and diagnosis of the problem(s). The assessment generally covers a variety of areas, such as developmental history (including family, education, and social relationships), pa st traumatic experiences, medical and psychiatric treatments, and goals.HEALTHY IMAGERY The University of Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center reports that clinicians often use guided imagery to help people (including children) deal with cancer. Guided Imagery can help children with cancer or other illnesses cope with the pain and the stress they may experience. To help a child through this Guided Imagery exercise, tell him or her to sit comfortably or lie down and close his or her eyes. Then ask the child to tell you their idea of the color of sickness and the color of healthiness. He or she might choose black for sickness and yellow for healthiness.Ask the child to visualize the black color in the area of the sickness, and then ask them to visualize the yellow color calmly filling the body, destroying all areas of black. Encourage the child to feel the warmth of the yellow color and the happiness that it brings. This can be done by the parent of a child when they are in a doctor's office awaiting tests, when the child is feeling hopeless and when they just need a boost of encouragement. Read more: http://www. livestrong. com/article/137127-guided-imagery-exercises-children/#ix zz293qwHEFg APPLICATIONSMichael was 8 years old when he was brought to play therapy for anxiety-related behaviors. There had been many changes in his life and neither of his parents had been particularly able to address his needs because of their own distress. While play therapy focused on helping identify Michael’s basic needs and factors that were preventing him from getting his needs met, Guided Imagery was introduced to help him achieve symptom-mastery, thereby helping to reduce some portion of his anxiety. One problem area was that Michael was having distressing nightmares that were interfering with his ability to get a full night’s sleep.Because of his age, a contract-relax procedure was used to initiate relaxation. Although the therapist wanted Michael to practice his Guided Imagery while lying on the floor using a pillow and a blanket, Michael found this setup too anxiety-provoking, he associated sleep with having nightmares. For this reason, Michael was initially trained while he sat in a bean bag chair and later moved to a pretend bed. In a interview with Michael it was determined that one of the images he found very relaxing was swimming in a lake (so long as the water was clear enough that he could see the bottom and ensure there were no creatures lying in wait. Once he was relaxed, the therapist guided him through imagining lying in very shallow water by the side of a lake. The image of water was strengthened by making it multisensory. Michael was asked to imagine that the sand he was lying on was warm and very soft and that it felt and sounded like the shifting of the beans in the bean bag chair. Then he was asked to imagine the water as being quite warm as it flowed over his body. He was told to picture a bright blue sky with puffy wh ite clouds and to hear the sound of very gently waves as they moved past his ears.The ebb and flow of the waves was then synchronized to his breathing so that the waves came up as he breathed in and flowed out as he exhaled. Michael enjoyed the image very much and was more than willing to practice it at home. The therapist instructed Michael to begin by practicing in the morning after he woke up so as to reduce his anxiety about possibly of falling asleep during the exercise. In session, the therapist helped Michael learn to use the image as a way of regaining control when anxious material was discussed.If Michael became anxious in session, the therapist would cue him to begin â€Å"breathing with the waves† in a slow and measured pace. As Michael reported achieving a more relaxed state, he and the therapist began to introduce images from his nightmares into the process. At first Michael was told to remain lying in the lake and to practice seeing some of the monsters from his dreams in the clouds overhead. Since these were clouds, not monsters, there were not particularly threatening. Later the monsters were brought to life and Michael engaged in many mastery fantasies. He would have his own monsters rise up out of the lake to protect him.He would become a knight with magic power. Or he would tell a joke and the monsters would laugh until they literally broke into pieces. At this time, the therapist began having Michael use the imagery when he woke up from a nightmare during the night as a way of soothing himself. As Michael reported more success he was encouraged to use the imagery prior to going to sleep at night to create dreams that would not be frightening. In essence, Michael scripted his dreams and took control over the expression of his anxiety. As can be seen in the above, it is important for the relaxation process and imagery to come under the child’s control.The therapist attempts to move from the role of instructor, to simply cuing th e start of the process, and finally to a role where he or she is simply reinforcing and helping to focus the use of the process outside of the session. If the child does not gain control of the process, it is unlikely that they will be able to use it outside of session, and they will remain dependent on the therapist. It should be also apparent that the process, at least in this case, also contained elements of cognitive-behavioral therapy and systematic desensitization.As stated in the introduction, Guided Imagery effectively enhances the therapeutic process. In this case, as intense as his nightmares were, it took Michael only a few weeks to first reduce and then virtually eliminate them. Once he experienced mastery, rapid gains ad generalization followed. This same process was used to help him master some other anxiety-related symptoms and enhance his school performance. SUPPLIES NEEDED The supplies needed for Guided Imagery are items that can help in the relaxation of muscles an d visualization of the image(s) of the therapy. Some examples of useful supplies would be: pillows ? blankets ? bean bag chairs ? a bed ? relaxing music (a variety) ? picture books (variety) RESOURCES http://www. minddisorders. com/Flu-Inv/Guided-imagery-therapy. html Books: – Kaduson, Schaefer. 101 Favorite Play Therapy Techniques/Guided Imagery – Crowley, R. Cartoon Magic: How to Help Children Discover Their Rainbows Within. 1989 REFERENCES – Jacobson, E (1938) Progressive Relaxation: A Physiological and Clinical Investigation of Muscular States and Their Significance in Psychology and Medical Practice, 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago. – O’Connor, K.